跳转至

认知减退

◀返回

认知减退(Cognitive depressions)指的是任何主观效应,其表现为以一种通常被认为是功能失调的方式,降低或减弱了一个人认知能力的某个方面的强度。如果想要了解更广泛的概况,可以阅读抑郁和抗抑郁效应的页面哦。

本页面列出并描述了在某些精神活性物质的影响下可能发生的各种认知减退现象呢。

目录

健忘

主条目:健忘

健忘(Amnesia)被定义为一种获取新记忆能力的整体受损(无论感官模式如何),以及从健忘开始前的一段时间内记忆的丧失(尤其是近期记忆)[1]。在健忘状态下,一个人通常会保留功能的感知能力和短期记忆,这仍然可以用来回忆最近发生的事件;这种效应与镇静产生的记忆障碍是不同的哦[2]。因此,一个正在经历健忘的人可能表面上看起来并没有什么异常,因为他们通常能够进行正常的对话并执行复杂的任务呢。

这种心理状态通常被称为“断片(blackout)”,这种体验可以分为两个正式类别:“碎片化”断片和“整块”断片[3]。碎片化断片,有时被称为“灰视(brownouts)”,其特征是能够回忆起中毒期间的特定事件,但在被提醒存在记忆缺失之前,意识不到某些记忆已经丢失了。研究表明,碎片化断片比“整块”断片更常见呢[4]。相比之下,整块断片的特征是即使受到提示,也完全无法回忆起中毒期间的任何记忆。通常很难确定这种类型的断片是在什么时候结束的,因为在结束之前通常就已经睡着了[5]

健忘通常伴随着其他同时发生的效应,如去抑制镇静记忆抑制。它最常在严重 剂量的GABA能 抑制剂影响下被诱发,例如酒精[6]苯二氮卓类物质[7]GHB[8]唑吡坦[9]。然而,在极高剂量的致幻剂化合物(如迷幻剂解离剂鼠尾草素甲谵妄剂)的影响下,它也会以较轻的程度发生呢。

分析能力减退

主条目:分析能力减退

分析能力减退(Analysis depression)被定义为一个人整体处理信息[10][11][12]以及逻辑地或创造性地分析概念、想法和场景的能力显著下降[13]。经历这种效应会导致在思考或理解基本概念时遇到重大困难,这可能会暂时阻碍正常的认知功能。

分析能力抑制通常伴随着其他同时发生的效应,如镇静思维减速和情绪抑制。它最常在严重 剂量抗精神病药化合物影响下被诱发[10][11][13],并且与长期使用此类药物[14](如喹硫平、氟哌啶醇和利培酮)有关。然而,在严重剂量的解离剂大麻素类物质[12]和GABA能 抑制剂[15]的影响下,它也会以不太一致的形式出现哦。

认知疲劳

主条目:认知疲劳

认知疲劳(Cognitive fatigue,也称为精疲力竭、疲倦、嗜睡、倦怠、无精打采等)在医学上被认为是通常与精神资源减弱或耗尽有关的一种状态[16][17]。这种效应的强度和持续时间通常取决于所消耗的物质及其剂量。各种因素,如缺乏睡眠[18]或食物[19],也会进一步加剧这种感觉。这些疲惫感涉及各种症状,通常包括以下部分或全部效应:

认知疲劳最常在中等 剂量抗精神病药化合物影响下被诱发[20][21],例如喹硫平、氟哌啶醇和利培酮。然而,在许多抑制剂戒断症状期间[22],以及许多兴奋剂药效褪去期间[23],也可能会发生这种情况呢。

困惑

主条目:困惑

困惑(Confusion)被定义为抽象思维受损,表现为无法以习惯的清晰度和连贯性进行思考[24]。在物质使用的背景下,通常表现为持续无法掌握或理解那些在清醒时完全可以理解的概念和情况。如果对环境或摄入的物质不熟悉,这种效应的强度似乎会进一步增加[25]

困惑通常伴随着其他同时发生的效应,如谵妄妄想短期记忆抑制,这进一步加剧了人的理解力缺乏。它最常在严重 剂量致幻化合物影响下被诱发,例如迷幻剂[26]解离剂[27]合成大麻素类物质[28]谵妄剂[29]。然而,在严重剂量的苯二氮卓类物质[30]抗精神病药[29]的影响下,它也会以较轻的程度发生哦。

谵妄

主条目:谵妄

谵妄(Delirium,也称为急性困惑[31]在医学上被认为是一种意识的生理紊乱,伴随着基线认知的变化,且不能用先前存在的或正在发展的神经认知障碍来更好地解释[32]。意识障碍表现为引导、集中、维持和转移注意力的能力降低,伴随的认知变化可能包括记忆和学习(特别是近期记忆)、定向障碍(特别是对时间地点)、语言改变,或知觉扭曲或知觉-运动障碍。伴随谵妄的知觉障碍包括误判错觉幻觉;这些障碍通常是视觉上的,但也可能出现在其他感官模式中,范围从简单单一到高度复杂。患有谵妄的人还可能表现出情绪障碍,如焦虑、恐惧、抑郁易怒、愤怒、欣快和冷漠,并伴有从一种情绪状态迅速且不可预测地转变为另一种情绪状态[33]

这种障碍在很短的时间内(通常是几小时到几天)发展,并且往往在一天中波动,通常在晚上和夜间当外部定向刺激减少时恶化。有人提出,谵妄的一个核心标准是睡眠-觉醒周期的紊乱。正常的注意力/觉醒、谵妄和昏迷处于一个连续体上,昏迷被定义为对语言刺激缺乏任何反应[33]

谵妄可能以三种不同的形式出现。这些在科学文献中被称为活动过度型、活动减退型或混合型[34]。在活动过度型中,表现为严重的困惑和定向障碍,发作突然且强度波动。在活动减退型(即活动不足)中,表现为同样突然地退出与外界的互动,伴有嗜睡和普遍不活动等症状[35]。谵妄也可能以混合型出现,其中一个人可能在活动过度和活动减退时期之间波动。

谵妄最常在严重 剂量谵妄剂化合物影响下被诱发,例如苯海拉明[36]曼陀罗[37]和苄达明。然而,它也可能是由极其广泛的健康问题引起的,例如尿路感染[38]、流感[39]和阿尔茨海默病[40]

创造力减退

主条目:创造力减退

创造力减退(Creativity depression)被定义为当执行涉及产生艺术输出或新颖问题解决的任务时,一个人的动力和能力均有所下降[41]。这种效应对于任何类型的艺术家来说可能都特别令人沮丧,因为它会导致暂时的创作瓶颈。

虽然有创造力的受试者反常地比普通人更常有抑郁症病史,但他们的创造性工作并不是在抑郁期间完成的,而是在抑郁期之间精力增加的反弹期完成的[41][42]

创造力抑制通常伴随着其他同时发生的效应,如抑郁[43]焦虑和情绪抑制,这进一步降低了人的创造能力[41]。它最常在中等 剂量抗精神病药影响下被诱发[41][44][45]。然而,由于SSRI类药物[46]以及任何多巴胺能化合物的戒断症状,也可能会发生这种情况呢[45]

语言能力减退

主条目:语言能力减退

语言能力减退(Language depression,也称为失语症)在医学上被认为是使用和理解语言能力的下降[47]。这会产生一种感觉,即发现很难甚至不可能表达自己的想法和处理他人的语言。然而,说话能力和处理他人语言的能力并不一定会同时受到抑制;一个人可能发现自己无法组织连贯的句子,但仍然能够完美地理解他人的讲话。

通常,这种效应可以分为四大类[47]

  1. 表达性(也称为布罗卡失语症):通过言语或书写表达思想有困难。那个人知道他/她想说什么,但找不到需要的词。例如,患有布罗卡失语症的人可能会说“遛狗”,意思是“我要带狗去散步”,或者说“书 书 两 桌子”,意思是“桌子上有两本书”。
  2. 接受性(韦尼克失语症):难以理解口头或书面语言。那个人听到声音或看到文字,但无法理解词语的含义。这些人可能会说长而完整的句子,但没有任何意义,加上不必要的词,甚至创造生造词。例如,“你知道那个咕噜粉红了,我想把他弄圆,像你以前想的那样照顾他。”结果,通常很难理解那个人试图说什么,而且说话者通常没有意识到他们的口语错误。
  3. 全局性:人们丧失几乎所有的语言功能,包括理解和表达。他们不能说话或理解语言,也不能读或写。这是由大脑语言区域严重而广泛的损伤引起的。他们可能连几个字都说不出来,或者可能一遍又一遍地重复相同的词或短语。
  4. 命名性(或遗忘性):失语症最轻微的形式;人们难以使用正确的名称来称呼特定的物体、人、地点或事件。

语言抑制通常伴随着其他同时发生的效应,如分析能力减退和思维解体。它最常在严重 剂量抗精神病药化合物影响下被诱发,例如喹硫平[48]、氟哌啶醇[49]和利培酮[50]。然而,在极严重剂量的致幻化合物(如迷幻剂[51]解离剂[51][52]谵妄剂[53])的影响下,它也会以不太一致的形式出现。当那个人对那种特定的致幻剂缺乏经验时,这种情况更有可能发生呢。

动力减退

主条目:动力减退

动力减退(Motivation depression,也称为意志缺乏动力缺乏[54]被定义为发起或坚持目标导向行为的欲望降低[55][56]。动力减退使个人无法将行动的奖励价值维持到不确定的未来;这包括被认为具有挑战性或不愉快的任务,如工作、学习、清洁和做一般家务。在较高水平下,动力减退会导致一个人失去参与任何活动的欲望,即使是那些通常被使用者认为是有趣或有回报的活动。当长时间经历高强度的这种效应时,会导致严重的无聊状态甚至轻微的抑郁

动力抑制通常伴随着其他同时发生的效应,如镇静思维减速。它最常在急性剂量抗精神病药化合物影响下被诱发,例如喹硫平、氟哌啶醇和利培酮[57][58]。然而,值得注意的是,长期使用任何剂量抗精神病药药物治疗并不引起这种效应[54]。在严重剂量的大麻素类物质[59]苯二氮卓类物质的影响下,由于长期使用SSRI[60],在兴奋剂药效褪去期间,以及几乎任何化合物的戒断症状期间,也可能会发生这种情况哦。

思维解体

主条目:思维解体

思维解体(Thought disorganization)被定义为一个人使用系统和逻辑的思维过程来分析和分类概念信息的能力显著下降的状态。它似乎是通过增加与手头主题无关或不相关的想法来实现的,从而降低了一个人进行结构化和连贯思维流的能力。这种效应似乎也使使用者在思维过程中能够保留的相关信息量显著减少,而这些信息通常对于进行扩展的心理计算、阐述想法和分析逻辑论证是有用的。

思维解体通常伴随着其他同时发生的效应,如分析能力减退和思维加速。它最常在严重 剂量致幻抑制剂化合物影响下被诱发,例如解离剂[61][62][63][64]迷幻剂[61][65]大麻素类物质[61][66][67]和GABA能药物[68][69]。然而,值得注意的是,在较低剂量下能诱发思维重组的同一种兴奋剂益智药化合物,在其较高剂量下也经常会导致相反的思维解体效应呢[61][69][70][71]

另见

参考文献

  1. Squire, L. R.; Zola, S. M. (1997). "Amnesia, memory and brain systems". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 352 (1362): 1663–1673. doi:10.1098/rstb.1997.0148. ISSN 0962-8436
  2. Veselis, R. A., Reinsel, R. A., Feshchenko, V. A. (1 October 2001). "Drug-induced Amnesia Is a Separate Phenomenon from Sedation". Anesthesiology. 95 (4): 896–907. doi:10.1097/00000542-200110000-00018. ISSN 0003-3022
  3. Hartzler, Bryan; Fromme, Kim (2003). "Fragmentary and en bloc blackouts: similarity and distinction among episodes of alcohol-induced memory loss". Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 64 (4): 547–550. doi:10.15288/jsa.2003.64.547. ISSN 0096-882X
  4. White, A. M., Signer, M. L., Kraus, C. L., Swartzwelder, H. S. (1 January 2004). "Experiential Aspects of Alcohol‐Induced Blackouts Among College Students". The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse. 30 (1): 205–224. doi:10.1081/ADA-120029874
  5. Goodwin, Donald W.; Crane, J. Bruce; Guze, Samuel B. (1969). "Alcoholic "Blackouts": A Review and Clinical Study of 100 Alcoholics". American Journal of Psychiatry. 126 (2): 191–198. doi:10.1176/ajp.126.2.191. ISSN 0002-953X
  6. Lee, Hamin; Roh, Sungwon; Kim, Dai Jin (2009). "Alcohol-Induced Blackout". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 6 (11): 2783–2792. doi:10.3390/ijerph6112783. ISSN 1660-4601
  7. Mejo, S. L. (October 1992). "Anterograde Amnesia Linked to Benzodiazepines:". The Nurse Practitioner. 17 (10): 44–50. doi:10.1097/00006205-199210000-00013. ISSN 0361-1817
  8. Barker, Judith C.; Harris, Shana L.; Dyer, Jo E. (2007). "Experiences of Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) Ingestion: A Focus Group Study". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 39 (2): 115–129. doi:10.1080/02791072.2007.10399870. ISSN 0279-1072
  9. Canaday, B. R. (August 1996). "Amnesia possibly associated with zolpidem administration". Pharmacotherapy. 16 (4): 687–689. ISSN 0277-0008
  10. 10.0 10.1 Knowles, Emma E.M.; David, Anthony S.; Reichenberg, Abraham (2010). "Processing Speed Deficits in Schizophrenia: Reexamining the Evidence". American Journal of Psychiatry. 167 (7): 828–835. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09070937. ISSN 0002-953X
  11. 11.0 11.1 Takeuchi, H.; Suzuki, T.; Remington, G.; Bies, R. R.; Abe, T.; Graff-Guerrero, A.; Watanabe, K.; Mimura, M.; Uchida, H. (2013). "Effects of Risperidone and Olanzapine Dose Reduction on Cognitive Function in Stable Patients With Schizophrenia: An Open-Label, Randomized, Controlled, Pilot Study". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 39 (5): 993–998. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbt090. ISSN 0586-7614
  12. 12.0 12.1 Fried, P; Watkinson, B; Gray, R (2005). "Neurocognitive consequences of marihuana—a comparison with pre-drug performance". Neurotoxicology and Teratology. 27 (2): 231–239. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2004.11.003. ISSN 0892-0362
  13. 13.0 13.1 Kawai, Nobutoshi; Yamakawa, Yuriko; Baba, Atsuomi; Nemoto, Kiyotaka; Tachikawa, Hirokazu; Hori, Takafumi; Asada, Takashi; Iidaka, Tetsuya (2006). "High-dose of multiple antipsychotics and cognitive function in schizophrenia: The effect of dose-reduction". Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry. 30 (6): 1009–1014. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.03.013. ISSN 0278-5846
  14. Husa, Anja P.; Moilanen, Jani; Murray, Graham K.; Marttila, Riikka; Haapea, Marianne; Rannikko, Irina; Barnett, Jennifer H.; Jones, Peter B.; Isohanni, Matti; Remes, Anne M.; Koponen, Hannu; Miettunen, Jouko; Jääskeläinen, Erika (2017). "Lifetime antipsychotic medication and cognitive performance in schizophrenia at age 43 years in a general population birth cohort". Psychiatry Research. 247: 130–138. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.10.085. ISSN 0165-1781
  15. Paraherakis, Antonios; Charney, Dara A.; Gill, Kathryn (2009). "NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING IN SUBSTANCE-DEPENDENT PATIENTS". Substance Use \& Misuse. 36 (3): 257–271. doi:10.1081/JA-100102625. ISSN 1082-6084
  16. "Glossary of Technical Terms". Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.): 821. 2013. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.GlossaryofTechnicalTerms
  17. Mizuno, Kei; Tanaka, Masaaki; Yamaguti, Kouzi; Kajimoto, Osami; Kuratsune, Hirohiko; Watanabe, Yasuyoshi (2011). "Mental fatigue caused by prolonged cognitive load associated with sympathetic hyperactivity". Behavioral and Brain Functions. 7 (1): 17. doi:10.1186/1744-9081-7-17. ISSN 1744-9081
  18. Alhola, P., \& Polo-Kantola, P. (2007). Sleep deprivation: Impact on cognitive performance. Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2656292/
  19. Kim, Jin Young; Kang, Seung Wan (2017). "Relationships between Dietary Intake and Cognitive Function in Healthy Korean Children and Adolescents". Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. 7 (1): 10–17. doi:10.15280/jlm.2017.7.1.10. ISSN 2234-8549
  20. Seo, Rubo J.; MacPherson, Holly; Young, Allan H. (2010). "Atypical Antipsychotics and Other Therapeutic Options for Treatment of Resistant Major Depressive Disorder". Pharmaceuticals. 3 (12): 3522–3542. doi:10.3390/ph3123522. ISSN 1424-8247
  21. Wittkampf, Laura Christina; Arends, Johannes; Timmerman, Leo; Lancel, Marike (2012). "A review of modafinil and armodafinil as add-on therapy in antipsychotic-treated patients with schizophrenia". Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology. 2 (3): 115–125. doi:10.1177/2045125312441815. ISSN 2045-1253
  22. Chaudhuri, Abhijit; Behan, Peter O (2000). "Fatigue and basal ganglia". Journal of the Neurological Sciences. 179 (1-2): 34–42. doi:10.1016/S0022-510X(00)00411-1. ISSN 0022-510X
  23. Lago, Jesus A.; Kosten, Thomas R. (1994). "Stimulant withdrawal". Addiction. 89 (11): 1477–1481. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1994.tb03746.x. ISSN 0965-2140
  24. Burns, A (2004). "Delirium". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery \& Psychiatry. 75 (3): 362–367. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2003.023366. ISSN 0022-3050
  25. Sheehan, Peter W.; Lewis, Sue-Ellen (2016). "Subjects' Reports of Confusion in Consciousness and the Arousal of Imagery". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 38 (3): 731–734. doi:10.2466/pms.1974.38.3.731. ISSN 0031-5125
  26. Lu, Lin; Krebs, Teri S.; Johansen, Pål-Ørjan (2013). "Psychedelics and Mental Health: A Population Study". PLoS ONE. 8 (8): e63972. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0063972. ISSN 1932-6203
  27. Mozayani, A. (January 2003). "Phencyclidine - Effects on Human Performance and Behavior". Forensic Science Review. 15 (1): 61–74. ISSN 1042-7201
  28. Chase, Peter B.; Hawkins, Jeff; Mosier, Jarrod; Jimenez, Ernest; Boesen, Keith; Logan, Barry K.; Walter, Frank G. (2015). "Differential physiological and behavioral cues observed in individuals smoking botanical marijuana versus synthetic cannabinoid drugs". Clinical Toxicology. 54 (1): 14–19. doi:10.3109/15563650.2015.1101769. ISSN 1556-3650
  29. 29.0 29.1 Kalisch Ellett, Lisa M.; Pratt, Nicole L.; Ramsay, Emmae N.; Barratt, John D.; Roughead, Elizabeth E. (2014). "Multiple Anticholinergic Medication Use and Risk of Hospital Admission for Confusion or Dementia". Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 62 (10): 1916–1922. doi:10.1111/jgs.13054. ISSN 0002-8614
  30. Nicholson, Katherine L.; Balster, Robert L. (2001). "GHB: a new and novel drug of abuse". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 63 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(00)00191-5. ISSN 0376-8716
  31. Sendelbach, Sue; Guthrie, Patty Finch; Schoenfelder, Deborah Perry (2009). "Acute Confusion/Delirium". Journal of Gerontological Nursing. 35 (11): 11–18. doi:10.3928/00989134-20090930-01. ISSN 0098-9134
  32. "Delirium". International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems (11th ed.). 2022. Retrieved 20 May 2022. 
  33. 33.0 33.1 "Neurocognitive Disorders". Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.): 596–602. 2013. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.dsm17
  34. Fong, Tamara G.; Tulebaev, Samir R.; Inouye, Sharon K. (2009). "Delirium in elderly adults: diagnosis, prevention and treatment". Nature Reviews Neurology. 5 (4): 210–220. doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2009.24. ISSN 1759-4758
  35. Hosker, Christian; Ward, David (2017). "Hypoactive delirium". BMJ: j2047. doi:10.1136/bmj.j2047. ISSN 0959-8138
  36. Serio, Ryan N (2004). "Acute Delirium Associated with Combined Diphenhydramine and Linezolid Use". Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 38 (1): 62–65. doi:10.1345/aph.1D018. ISSN 1060-0280
  37. Hanna, J. P., Schmidley, J. W., Braselton, W. E. (April 1992). "Datura Delirium:". Clinical Neuropharmacology. 15 (2): 109–113. doi:10.1097/00002826-199204000-00004. ISSN 0362-5664
  38. Balogun, Seki A.; Philbrick, John T. (2014). "Delirium, a Symptom of UTI in the Elderly: Fact or Fable? A Systematic Review*". Canadian Geriatrics Journal. 17 (1). doi:10.5770/cgj.17.90. ISSN 1925-8348
  39. Manjunatha, Narayana; Math, SureshBada; Kulkarni, GirishBaburao; Chaturvedi, SantoshKumar (2011). "The neuropsychiatric aspects of influenza/swine flu: A selective review". Industrial Psychiatry Journal. 20 (2): 83. doi:10.4103/0972-6748.102479. ISSN 0972-6748
  40. Lerner, A. J., Hedera, P., Koss, E., Stuckey, J., Friedland, R. P. (March 1997). "Delirium in Alzheimer Disease:". Alzheimer Disease \& Associated Disorders. 11 (1): 16–20. doi:10.1097/00002093-199703000-00004. ISSN 0893-0341
  41. 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 Flaherty, Alice W. (2005). "Frontotemporal and dopaminergic control of idea generation and creative drive". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 493 (1): 147–153. doi:10.1002/cne.20768. ISSN 0021-9967
  42. Jamison, K. R. (1989). Mood disorders and patterns of creativity in British writers and artists. Psychiatry, 52(2), 125-134. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2734415/
  43. von Hecker, Ulrich; Meiser, Thorsten (2005). "Defocused Attention in Depressed Mood: Evidence From Source Monitoring". Emotion. 5 (4): 456–463. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.4.456. ISSN 1931-1516
  44. Moncrieff, J.; Cohen, D.; Mason, J. P. (2009). "The subjective experience of taking antipsychotic medication: a content analysis of Internet data". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 120 (2): 102–111. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01356.x. ISSN 0001-690X
  45. 45.0 45.1 Szmulewicz, Alejandro; Samamé, Cecilia; Caravotta, Pablo; Martino, Diego J.; Igoa, Ana; Hidalgo-Mazzei, Diego; Colom, Francesc; Strejilevich, Sergio A. (2016). "Behavioral and emotional adverse events of drugs frequently used in the treatment of bipolar disorders: clinical and theoretical implications". International Journal of Bipolar Disorders. 4 (1). doi:10.1186/s40345-016-0047-3. ISSN 2194-7511
  46. Bolling, Madelon Y.; Kohlenberg, Robert J. (2004). "Reasons for Quitting Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor Therapy: Paradoxical Psychological Side Effects and Patient Satisfaction". Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics. 73 (6): 380–385. doi:10.1159/000080392. ISSN 0033-3190
  47. 47.0 47.1 What Is Aphasia? — Types, Causes and Treatment, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD) 
  48. Chien, Ching-Fang; Huang, Poyin; Hsieh, Sun-Wung (2017). "Reversible global aphasia as a side effect of quetiapine: a case report and literature review". Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment. Volume 13: 2257–2260. doi:10.2147/NDT.S141273. ISSN 1178-2021
  49. Iqbal, M. M., Aneja, A., Rahman, A., Megna, J., Freemont, W., Shiplo, M., Nihilani, N., Lee, K. (August 2005). "The Potential Risks of Commonly Prescribed Antipsychotics". Psychiatry (Edgmont). 2 (8): 36–44. ISSN 1550-5952
  50. Sinha, Preeti; Vandana, V.P.; Lewis, Nikita Vincent; Jayaram, M.; Enderby, Pamela (2015). "Evaluating the effect of risperidone on speech: A cross-sectional study". Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 15: 51–55. doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2015.05.005. ISSN 1876-2018
  51. 51.0 51.1 Dell'Erba, Sara; Brown, David J.; Proulx, Michael J. (2018). "Synesthetic hallucinations induced by psychedelic drugs in a congenitally blind man". Consciousness and Cognition. 60: 127–132. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2018.02.008. ISSN 1053-8100
  52. Kjellgren, Anette; Jonsson, Kristoffer (2013). "Methoxetamine (MXE) – A Phenomenological Study of Experiences Induced by a "Legal High" from the Internet". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 45 (3): 276–286. doi:10.1080/02791072.2013.803647. ISSN 0279-1072
  53. Nguyen, Huy TV; Juurlink, David N (2004). "Recurrent Ibuprofen-Induced Aseptic Meningitis". Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 38 (3): 408–410. doi:10.1345/aph.1D329. ISSN 1060-0280
  54. 54.0 54.1 Fervaha, Gagan; Takeuchi, Hiroyoshi; Lee, Jimmy; Foussias, George; Fletcher, Paul J; Agid, Ofer; Remington, Gary (2015). "Antipsychotics and Amotivation". Neuropsychopharmacology. 40 (6): 1539–1548. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.3. ISSN 0893-133X
  55. Lee, Jung; Jung, Suwon; Park, Il; Kim, Jae-Jin (2015). "Neural Basis of Anhedonia and Amotivation in Patients with Schizophrenia: The Role of Reward System". Current Neuropharmacology. 13 (6): 750–759. doi:10.2174/1570159X13666150612230333. ISSN 1570-159X
  56. Barch, D. M.; Dowd, E. C. (2010). "Goal Representations and Motivational Drive in Schizophrenia: The Role of Prefrontal-Striatal Interactions". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 36 (5): 919–934. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbq068. ISSN 0586-7614
  57. Artaloytia, Juan Francisco; Arango, Celso; Lahti, Adrienne; Sanz, Javier; Pascual, Ana; Cubero, Pedro; Prieto, David; Palomo, Tomás (2006). "Negative Signs and Symptoms Secondary to Antipsychotics: A Double-Blind, Randomized Trial of a Single Dose of Placebo, Haloperidol, and Risperidone in Healthy Volunteers". American Journal of Psychiatry. 163 (3): 488–493. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.3.488. ISSN 0002-953X
  58. Saeedi, H; Remington, G; Christensen, B (2006). "Impact of haloperidol, a dopamine D2 antagonist, on cognition and mood". Schizophrenia Research. 85 (1-3): 222–231. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2006.03.033. ISSN 0920-9964
  59. Lawn, Will; Freeman, Tom P; Pope, Rebecca A; Joye, Alyssa; Harvey, Lisa; Hindocha, Chandni; Mokrysz, Claire; Moss, Abigail; Wall, Matthew B; Bloomfield, Michael AP; Das, Ravi K; Morgan, Celia JA; Nutt, David J; Curran, H Valerie (2016). "Acute and chronic effects of cannabinoids on effort-related decision-making and reward learning: an evaluation of the cannabis 'amotivational' hypotheses". Psychopharmacology. 233 (19-20): 3537–3552. doi:10.1007/s00213-016-4383-x. ISSN 0033-3158
  60. Starcevic, Vladan (2014). "The reappraisal of benzodiazepines in the treatment of anxiety and related disorders". Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 14 (11): 1275–1286. doi:10.1586/14737175.2014.963057. ISSN 1473-7175
  61. 61.0 61.1 61.2 61.3 Murray, Robin M.; Morrison, Paul D.; Di Forti, Marta; Paparelli, Alessandra (2011). "Drug-Induced Psychosis: How to Avoid Star Gazing in Schizophrenia Research by Looking at More Obvious Sources of Light". Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience. 5. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00001. ISSN 1662-5153
  62. Flohr, H., Glade, U., Motzko, D. (1998). "The neural correlate of consciousness and the mechanisms of general anaesthesia". Toxicology Letters. 100: 23–29. 
  63. Flohr, H.; Glade, U.; Motzko, D. (1998). "The role of the NMDA synapse in general anesthesia". Toxicology Letters. 100-101: 23–29. doi:10.1016/S0378-4274(98)00161-1. ISSN 0378-4274
  64. Lahti, A (2001). "Effects of Ketamine in Normal and Schizophrenic Volunteers". Neuropsychopharmacology. 25 (4): 455–467. doi:10.1016/S0893-133X(01)00243-3. ISSN 0893-133X
  65. Winkelman, Michael J. (2017). "The Mechanisms of Psychedelic Visionary Experiences: Hypotheses from Evolutionary Psychology". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 11. doi:10.3389/fnins.2017.00539. ISSN 1662-453X
  66. D’Souza, Deepak Cyril; Sewell, Richard Andrew; Ranganathan, Mohini (2009). "Cannabis and psychosis/schizophrenia: human studies". European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 259 (7): 413–431. doi:10.1007/s00406-009-0024-2. ISSN 0940-1334
  67. Radhakrishnan, Rajiv; Wilkinson, Samuel T.; D’Souza, Deepak Cyril (2014). "Gone to Pot â€" A Review of the Association between Cannabis and Psychosis". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 5. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00054. ISSN 1664-0640
  68. Bennett, W. R. Murray; Wilson, Lawrence G.; Roy-Byrne, Peter P. (2007). "Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid (GHB) Withdrawal: A Case Report". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 39 (3): 293–296. doi:10.1080/02791072.2007.10400616. ISSN 0279-1072
  69. 69.0 69.1 Tsuang, Ming T. (1982). "Subtypes of Drug Abuse With Psychosis". Archives of General Psychiatry. 39 (2): 141. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1982.04290020013003. ISSN 0003-990X
  70. Angrist, Burton; Thompson, Hyacinth; Shopsin, Baron; Gershon, Samuel (1975). "Clinical studies with dopamine-receptor stimulants". Psychopharmacologia. 44 (3): 273–280. doi:10.1007/BF00428906. ISSN 0033-3158
  71. Krystal, John H.; Perry, Edward B.; Gueorguieva, Ralitza; Belger, Aysenil; Madonick, Steven H.; Abi-Dargham, Anissa; Cooper, Thomas B.; MacDougall, Lisa; Abi-Saab, Walid; D’Souza, D. Cyril (2005). "Comparative and Interactive Human Psychopharmacologic Effects of Ketamine and Amphetamine". Archives of General Psychiatry. 62 (9): 985. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.9.985. ISSN 0003-990X.